Top 9 Instructional Design Models, Theories, and Principles in 2025

Instructional design is the backbone of every great learning experience. Whether you’re planning a classroom lesson, crafting corporate training, or building an online course, how you structure content and engage learners can make or break the outcome. Over the years, experts have developed models and theories that act like blueprints or “recipes” for effective learning design. They help align your goals with teaching methods, content flow, assessments, and delivery, ensuring learners stay engaged and actually learn (what a concept, right?).

In 2025, with digital innovation reshaping education daily, understanding these frameworks is more important than ever. But if your head is spinning with acronyms and theories (ADDIE? UDL? Bloom’s Taxonomy? Sounds like alphabet soup), don’t worry. We’ve got you.

This plain-speak guide will walk you through nine of the most influential instructional design models, theories, and principles in use today. For each, we’ll cover what it is, why it’s useful, and real-world tips on when to pull it out of your toolkit. By the end, you’ll know which framework is the best fit for your project, and you might even impress your team by tossing around a theory or two at the next meeting.

Ready? Let’s go!

1. ADDIE: The classic 5-step blueprint

What it is

ADDIE stands for Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate. Think of it as the grandma of instructional design models. Old-fashioned? Maybe, but rock-solid. Born in the 1970s for the U.S. Army, ADDIE breaks course creation into five clear phases:

• Analysis: Figure out the learning need. Who are your learners? What do they need to know or do? Define your learning objectives and constraints up front.
  
  
• Design: Plan the learning experience. Decide on content, strategy, and assessments. It’s like drafting a blueprint for your course.
  
  
• Development: Create the content and materials based on the design. This is where you build slides, videos, activities, the works.
  
  
• Implementation: Deliver the training. Launch that course in your LMS or classroom and get learners through it.
  
  
• Evaluation: Assess how it went. Gather feedback, test results, and see if objectives were met. Identify improvements for next time.

Why it’s useful

ADDIE gives you a structured, step-by-step process. It’s straightforward and widely taught. Basically, Instructional Design 101. Because it’s so systematic, you’re less likely to skip important steps. Everything stays aligned: objectives ↦ content ↦ assessment.

Real-world use

If you have a large or high-stakes project (think a semester-long curriculum or a company-wide compliance program), ADDIE is your friend. It ensures you do the homework before jumping into development. Some folks complain it’s too linear or slow, but you can absolutely iterate within it. In fact, many “modern” models are just spin-offs of ADDIE. Consider ADDIE your reliable roadmap. Use it as-is for clarity, or bend it a little when your project needs agility.

2. Bloom’s Taxonomy: The cognitive climb (from remembering to creating)

What it is

Bloom’s Taxonomy is basically a staircase for learning objectives. Developed in the 1950s by educational psychologist Benjamin Bloom, it classifies levels of understanding from the most basic to the most complex. In its revised form, the ladder has six rungs:

• Remember: Can the learner recall facts or definitions? (E.g., “What is the capital of France?”)
  
  
• Understand: Can they explain concepts in their own words? (E.g., “Describe why the French Revolution happened.”)
  
  
• Apply: Can they use the knowledge in a new situation? (E.g., “Use the formula to solve this case study problem.”)
  
  
• Analyse: Can they break information into parts and see relationships? (E.g., “Compare and contrast two teaching methods.”)
  
  
• Evaluate: Can they make judgments and back them up with evidence? (E.g., “Assess the credibility of two sources of information.”)
  
  
• Create: Can they put ideas together to form something new? (E.g., “Design an experiment to test a hypothesis.”)

Why it’s useful

Bloom’s gives you a clear framework to craft learning objectives and assessments. It helps ensure you’re not just sticking to easy, recall-level tasks. Want learners to truly understand and apply knowledge? Aim for higher Bloom’s levels. For example, instead of asking trainees to memorise safety rules (remember), have them apply those rules in a simulated scenario.

Real-world use

Almost every teacher or instructional designer has a Bloom’s Taxonomy chart bookmarked (or a pyramid graphic stuck on their wall). Use it when writing objectives, quiz questions, or activities. If all your tasks sit at the bottom of the pyramid (remember/understand), challenge yourself to add an analyse or create-level exercise. Bloom’s ensures you’re building that cognitive climb so learners don’t just parrot facts but can do meaningful things with the knowledge.

3. Merrill’s Principles of Instruction: Learning by Doing

What it is

David Merrill’s approach (sometimes called MPI, Merrill’s Principles of Instruction) is all about task-centred learning. The idea is simple. People learn best when they’re solving real problems. Merrill distilled five core principles that make learning effective:

• Problem-centred: Learning is framed around real-world tasks. Start with a realistic problem or case study from day one, rather than dumping abstract info.
  
  
• Activation: Kickstart learning by connecting to what learners already know. Activate prior knowledge or experiences that relate to the new task.
  
  
• Demonstration: Show learners what to do. Provide clear examples or simulations. (Think of a cooking class where the chef first demos the recipe.)
  
  
• Application: Let learners try it with guidance. Practice is crucial. Exercises, role-plays, labs, with feedback to correct mistakes.
  
  
• Integration: Encourage learners to integrate new skills into their world. Have them reflect, discuss, or work on a project so the learning sticks and carries beyond the course.

Why it’s useful

Merrill’s principles are common sense wrapped in a model. They ensure that training isn’t just theory, but that it’s hands-on and relevant. By focusing on real problems, you boost motivation (learners see why it matters) and retention (because they immediately apply what they learned).

Real-world use

Merrill’s shines in skill-based training. Examples: Onboarding new employees with scenarios that mirror actual job tasks, or a compliance course where learners work through realistic dilemmas. It’s great for vocational training, software training, medical education, or anywhere you want learners to hit the ground running with practical skills. If you catch yourself making a course that’s all slides and no action, remember Merrill and ask, “What’s the real problem learners should learn to solve?” Then build activities around that.

4. Situated Cognition: Learning in context (keepin’ it real)

What it is

Situated Cognition theory says that where and how you learn is inseparable from what you learn. In plain English: Knowledge is best gained in the context of real activity. You can’t just pluck knowledge out of one setting and expect it to work in another. If that sounds abstract, consider this: It’s the difference between reading a manual on driving versus actually practicing in a car.

Key ideas in Situated Cognition include:

• Learning should occur in an environment that closely mirrors where you’ll use the skills. (If you’re teaching customer service, a role-play or simulation of a customer call beats a lecture on theory.)
  
  
• “Knowing” = “Doing”: You learn by actually doing tasks, not by passively absorbing information.
  
  
• Social interaction often goes hand-in-hand with situated learning. Think apprenticeship models. Learning alongside a mentor on real projects, gradually taking on more as you become competent.

Why it’s useful

This theory reminds us that relevance and realism drive learning home. It pushes designers to include case studies, projects, or simulations that reflect the actual context learners will face. When learners practice skills in context, they’re far more likely to transfer those skills to the job or real life.

Real-world use

Bring the real world in. If you’re designing an eLearning course on, say, cybersecurity, incorporate interactive scenarios where learners have to identify and respond to a security threat (rather than just reading about threats). In academic settings, use field trips, labs, or internships where possible. Even in a purely online course, you can use storytelling and scenarios to create context. The bottom line: whenever you can, teach it where you’ll use it, or as close to that as possible. It makes learning authentic and sticky.

5. Sociocultural Learning Theory: It takes a village (to learn)

What it is

Sociocultural Theory, rooted in the work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky, argues that learning is a social, cultural process. We don’t learn in a vacuum; we learn through interaction with others and with the tools our culture provides. Key components of this theory include:

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): This fancy term means there’s a sweet spot of learning. Things a learner can’t do alone but can do with guidance. It’s like when a child can solve a puzzle with a little hint from a parent that they couldn’t solve solo. In education, it means with the right support (a hint, a prompt, a partner), learners can achieve more.
  
  
• Scaffolding: Given the ZPD, scaffolding is the support we provide to help learners reach that next level. Think of scaffolding around a building. It’s temporary support. In learning, that might be step-by-step guidance, checklists, or coaching that you gradually remove as learners become competent.
  
  
• Language and culture: Our language, symbols, and tools (from textbooks to software) shape how we learn and think. Learning often happens through dialogue, with instructors, peers, or even internal self-talk. Cultural context can influence motivation and how knowledge is constructed.

Why it’s useful

Sociocultural theory basically says people learn from people. Discussion, collaboration, and coaching aren’t just feel-good add-ons; they’re central to deep learning. It encourages us to create learning experiences that leverage social interaction and adapt to learners’ cultural backgrounds.

Real-world use

Use this theory when designing group work, mentorship, or social learning elements. For instance, instead of a self-paced module only, you might add a moderated discussion board or live workshop so learners can learn from each other. In corporate training, consider a buddy system or coaching sessions. New hires pair with experienced mentors, tapping into that ZPD by doing tasks with guidance. In any setting, be mindful of cultural diversity: examples, idioms, and scenarios should be inclusive and relatable. The core takeaway: Don’t design learning as a one-way street. Give learners chances to interact, ask questions, and co-create knowledge.

6. Universal Design for Learning (UDL): Designing for everyone, from the start

What it is

Universal Design for Learning is all about inclusivity by design. Instead of retrofitting a course to accommodate differences, UDL says: Design the course from the ground up to work for as many people as possible. It’s like building a building with ramps and elevators from the start, rather than adding them later. UDL focuses on three core principles (the UDL guidelines):

• Multiple means of representation: Offer content in different formats. Text, audio, video, infographics, you name it. Not everyone learns best from reading or from listening. By presenting information in multiple ways, you cater to learners with different preferences and needs (and you help those with disabilities access the content, too).
  
  
• Multiple means of action and expression: Give learners different ways to show what they know. Maybe one student writes an essay, another creates a video, another gives a presentation. The idea is to allow various forms of participation and assessment. This is great for accommodating those with varying strengths (one learner might be awful at writing but great at speaking, for example).
  
  
• Multiple means of engagement: Use different methods to engage and motivate learners. Variety is key. Some might respond to gamification or competition, others to personal relevance or collaboration. Also, provide choices where possible, so learners have a say in how they learn (which can boost engagement big time).

Why it’s useful

UDL leads to learning experiences that are flexible and accessible. In today’s diverse classrooms (and global online courses), one size definitely does not fit all. By planning for variability from the start, you create a course where everyone finds a way to connect with the material. Bonus: Often the things you do for accessibility (like adding captions to videos) benefit everyone, not just those with disabilities.

Real-world use

Use UDL principles whenever you’re designing for a diverse audience, which is almost always. For example, if you’re creating an eLearning course, include captions on videos, provide transcripts for audio, and use clear, readable fonts and layouts (representation). Let learners choose between a few project formats or topics (action/expression). Include interactive polls, stories that learners can relate to, or perhaps optional challenge activities for those who want more (engagement). In short, bake in options and support upfront. It might take a bit more work initially, but it saves you from scrambling later when a learner says, “I can’t access this content” or “This doesn’t work for me.” UDL is increasingly considered essential, not just a nice-to-have, in modern instructional design.

7. Successive Approximation Model (SAM): The agile iterative approach

What it is

The Successive Approximation Model, or SAM, is like the agile software development of instructional design. If ADDIE is a carefully planned five-course meal, SAM is more like cooking and taste-testing as you go. It emphasises quick cycles and constant feedback. SAM typically has three phases:

• Preparation phase: Do a quick’n’dirty analysis. What’s the problem we’re solving? Who are our learners? Gather just enough info to start prototyping. (No months-long analysis paralysis here.)
  
  
• Iterative design phase: You immediately create a prototype or design proof. Maybe it’s a few slides of a course or a rough storyboard. Then you show it to stakeholders or sample learners. Gather feedback early and often. Revise. This phase might cycle a few times (design → feedback → tweak → repeat).
  
  
• Iterative development phase: This is where you develop the full course in sprints, still incorporating feedback as you build. Instead of waiting until the end to test the whole thing, you continually test pieces as they’re developed.
  
  

Why it’s useful

SAM is flexible and fast. It’s built for environments where things change or you need to deliver quickly. By involving stakeholders throughout and testing early prototypes, you catch issues sooner. Plus, clients/SMEs feel involved and heard (reducing those “This isn’t what I wanted at all” moments late in the project). It’s an answer to the critique that ADDIE can be too slow or linear. SAM embraces an iterative mindset from the start.

Real-world use

SAM is perfect for tight timelines or evolving projects. Let’s say you’re creating a new e-learning module and your content is likely to change as SMEs review it, or maybe your client isn’t even 100% sure what they want. Using SAM, you’d spin up a prototype in days, not weeks, get immediate feedback, and keep adapting. It’s also great for a team culture that values collaboration. You’ll be in constant communication with reviewers. One thing to note: SAM benefits from having the right people available for quick feedback cycles. If your stakeholders disappear for a month after each review, SAM loses its edge. But when it works, it’s a lifesaver for agile project environments. Think quick, think iterative, think SAM.

8. Dick and Carey Model: The systematic step-by-step

What it is

The Dick & Carey model (named after Walter Dick and Lou Carey, the ID gurus who developed it) is a systematic, linear approach like ADDIE, but with more granular steps. It breaks down the process of designing instruction into components and emphasises the connections between them. In a nutshell, the Dick and Carey model involves steps such as:

1. Identify instructional goals: What should learners be able to do by the end?
   
   
2. Conduct instructional analysis: Break down what people need to learn to achieve those goals. Identify sub-skills, required prior knowledge, etc.
   
   
3. Analyse learners and context: Who are your learners? What are their prior skills, attitudes? Also consider the context of learning and performance (where will they learn and use these skills).
   
   
4. Write performance objectives: For each skill, write specific, measurable objectives (conditions, behavior, criteria).
   
   
5. Develop assessment instruments: Create tests or evaluations aligned to those objectives (so you can measure if each objective is met).
   
   
6. Develop instructional strategy: Plan the teaching strategy. The content sequencing, learning activities, delivery media, etc., that will best help learners master the objectives.
   
   
7. Develop and select instructional materials: Create or obtain the actual materials (manuals, slides, eLearning modules, etc.) according to the strategy.
   
   
8. Design and conduct formative evaluation: Test your materials on a small scale (one-on-one, small group, or a pilot) to get feedback before full rollout.
   
   
9. Revise instruction: Use the feedback to improve the materials.
   
   
10. Conduct summative evaluation: After full implementation, evaluate the overall effectiveness of the instruction.

(Depending on sources, the steps might be condensed or expanded, but the above is the general flow.)

Why it’s useful

Talk about thorough. Dick & Carey ensures alignment at every level. Objectives line up with assessments which line up with activities, and so on. It forces you to really think through the why and how of each piece of your instruction. The emphasis on formative evaluation (testing and tweaking before wide release) is a huge plus; it’s like a built-in quality assurance step.

Real-world use

This model works great for formal training programs where stakes are high or content is complex. For instance, designing a curriculum for a certification program or a government training course might benefit from Dick & Carey’s rigor. It’s also common in academic circles and for grant-funded education projects that require detailed documentation. If you love structure, checklists, and not leaving anything to chance, you’ll appreciate this model. One caveat: because it’s detailed, it can be time-consuming. It’s best used when you need that level of detail, otherwise it might feel like overkill. But even if you don’t follow it to the letter, the spirit of Dick & Carey (goal–objective alignment, test-then-revise) is universally valuable in designing effective learning.

9. Morrison, Ross, and Kemp Model (The Kemp Model): The flexible framework

What it is

The Kemp Model, from Morrison, Ross, and Kemp (often just called “Kemp model” for short), offers a non-linear, holistic approach to instructional design. Instead of strict phases, Kemp presents elements or perspectives that you should consider (and you can tackle them in any order). The Kemp model asks you to address these key elements in your design:

• Learner characteristics: Who are your learners and what are their needs, skills, and preferences?
  
  
• Instructional problems: What problem are we trying to solve with instruction? What are the gaps in knowledge or skills?
  
  
• Task analysis / content: What content needs to be learned? Break down the subject matter.
  
  
• Learning objectives: What specific outcomes should learners achieve?
  
  
• Content sequencing: How will you organise and sequence the content and tasks for learning?
  
  
• Instructional strategies: What methods, activities, and media will you use for teaching each part?
  
  
• Instructional delivery: What format will it take (online, face-to-face, blended)? What tools will you use (LMS, classroom tech, etc.)?
  
  
• Evaluation instruments and strategies: How will you assess learner progress and evaluate the effectiveness of the instruction itself?
  
  
• Support services: What resources and support do learners and instructors need (e.g., IT support, job aids, tutoring)?

You can see it’s comprehensive, covering analysis, design, development, and evaluation considerations. But you don’t have to do it in a strict sequence. The model is often visualised as a circular process where all these elements interact.

Why it’s useful

The Kemp model is praised for its flexibility and learner-centred focus. It acknowledges that in real projects, you don’t always follow a neat step 1-2-3 order. Sometimes you jump around, and that’s okay here. Also, by listing all these elements, it reminds you not to neglect anything important (like thinking about learner support or delivery logistics, which some other models gloss over).

Real-world use

Use the Kemp model when you have a complex learning environment or need a more adaptive planning process. For example, designing a multi-course curriculum with multiple stakeholders could benefit from Kemp. You might start by defining high-level goals, then jump to considering learner characteristics, then prototype some content, then come back to writing objectives, and so on. It’s also great for modern learning experiences like flipped classrooms, microlearning, or blended learning. These often require revisiting design decisions as you go (maybe you pilot one module and learn that your sequencing was off. Kemp fully expects you’ll iterate). Essentially, the Kemp model is as structured as you need it to be, but not more. If you found ADDIE too rigid but still want a checklist of things to consider, Kemp strikes a nice balance.

Mixing and matching for the best learning experience

If your brain is buzzing with all these models and theories, here’s the good news: You don’t have to marry just one. In practice, many instructional designers take a little from here, a little from there, and adapt to the project at hand. There’s no one “right” approach. What works for a 3rd-grade math class might not work for a corporate sales training, and that’s okay. The key is to understand the strengths and focus of each model so you can choose the best tool (or combination of tools) for the job.

For instance, you might use ADDIE’s structured phases to manage your project, apply Bloom’s Taxonomy when writing your learning objectives and quiz questions, incorporate Merrill’s problem-based approach in your activities, and follow UDL principles to ensure everything is accessible. All in the same course! A skilled instructional designer is a bit of a chef, mixing ingredients from different recipes to create the perfect dish for their unique audience.

In 2025 and beyond, learning is only getting more diverse and tech-infused. These models and theories aren’t static rules; think of them as guiding stars. They help you not to reinvent the wheel each time and avoid known pitfalls. But they also expect you to use your judgment. Stay flexible, keep the learner at the centre of your decisions, and don’t be afraid to iterate. That’s the real art of instructional design: blending science-based principles with creativity and empathy.

Before we wrap up, let’s put everything side by side. Here’s a handy comparison of these nine frameworks to highlight what each brings to the table:

As you can see, each model or theory has its niche. The magic happens when you choose the right mix for your scenario.

Need structure and proven process?
ADDIE or Dick & Carey have your back.

Got a fast-moving project?
SAM’s agility saves the day.

Want to boost engagement and realism?
Bring in Merrill’s tasks or situated learning context.

Aiming for inclusivity?
UDL, always.

And underpinning everything: Understand your learners (Kemp and sociocultural remind us of that) and what you want them to achieve (hello Bloom’s and objective alignment).

Instructional design is part science, part art. These models and theories give us time-tested science. Frameworks born from research and experience. Your job is to apply them artfully, with a dash of creativity and a constant focus on your learners’ needs. Do that, and you’ll be well on your way to crafting learning experiences in 2025 that are not just effective, but inspiring and impactful too.

References

• Whatfix – “8 Effective Instructional Design Models in 2025”whatfix.comwhatfix.com
• eLearning Industry – “Top 10 Instructional Design Theories For Your Next eLearning Course”elearningindustry.comelearningindustry.com
• Instructure – “6 Key Principles of Instructional Design” (Instructure Blog, Nov 10, 2023)instructure.cominstructure.com
• CloudShare – “7 Essential Types of Instructional Design to Use in 2024”cloudshare.com (overview of various models and when to use them)
• Post University – “Universal Design for Learning” (Post University blog on applying UDL in education)
• Instructure – “How to Craft Effective Learning Experiences” (guide on integrating ID principles with LMS technology)